Alexander III and his counter-reforms

Alexander III had no intention of continuing the reforms of his father. Rather, he had every intention of preserving autocratic rule and proposals for constitutional reform were defeated in 1881 whilst measures to enhance state security, like the establishment of a secret police, the Okhrana, were put in place.

Politically, the Tsarist state asserted greater control. For example, a new office, the Land Captain, was introduced and given extensive administrative and judicial power. He could cancel any decision of a local court, remove a judge, arrest, fine, or order physical punishment. The decisions of a Land Captain were considered final and did not allow for revision or complaints. They were drawn from the ranks of the local nobility, chosen by the provincial governor and subject to the approval of the Ministry of the Interior. Though the zemstva remained, its membership was now decided through three separate electoral colleges and, with peasant representation much reduced, it was dominated by landowners and its role confined to such things as improving local services such as roads, fire-fighting and education. The electorate for municipal councils was similarly reduced. On the whole, local initiative was stifled.

Control over the judiciary was similarly centralised and the Minister of Justice was given increased powers, for example when to hold trials in camera, whilst crimes against state officials were to be held in special courts without a jury. Publications critical to the regime could also be suspended indefinitely and editors prevented from publishing anything else.

With respect to religion, restrictive measures were put in place on those dissenting from the Orthodox Church. For example, any attempt to convert a member of the Orthodox Church to a dissenting religion was punished by exile to Siberia. And with respect to education, state control was also established over the universities. Rectors, deans and lecturers would now be appointed by the Minister of Education rather than by the universities themselves.  Fees were also raised to keep out students from lower ranks, and students were banned from joining student groups. Primary education was also affected as the Church was given more control. The government believed that peasants should receive the minimum of education lest it encourage dangerous ideas: only 21% of the population were literate.

Russification, a feature of the 1870s, became the official policy under Alexander III as advisers, committed to it, became more influential in the government. Russian language, culture and religion, as well as the Russian legal system and conscription into the Russian army were all forced onto the 55% of non-Russians. Education was geared to make non-Russians loyal subjects of the Tsar and the Russian nation.

The liberalisation of Russian society, limited though it was, mostly ended.